Canada (Onwards)

[WIP]

Canada is a parliamentary, constitutional monarchy, located in the northern regions of the North American continent. It consists of ten provinces and three territories. It is the second largest country in the world by area, and sustains a considerable economy totaling 1.73 trillion US Dollars. Much of Canada's economy is service-based, with much of its exports consisting of natural resources, mainly farmed from its vast and largely empty northern territories. These resources include lumber, oil, diamonds, gold, iron, coal, copper, zinc, and several other minerals and ores.

Canada is a highly developed nation, boasting a "Very Developed" ranking on the Human Development Index. Quality of life in Canada is consistently ranked as the best in the world, with Canada being ranked first on the BAV Group's Best Countries Report in 2021 and 2022. Canadians enjoy a high level of economic freedom, ranking 9th on The Heritage Foundation's Index of Economic Freedom. Canada boasts the 17th highest nominal per-capita income in the world, which is made possible by its deep involvement in international trade organizations such as the USMCA, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie, and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum. Thanks to its membership in these groups, as well as being a member of the G7 and NATO, Canada carries a strong diplomatic presence on the world stage. Its ability to maintain friendly relations with countries even as they are in conflict with other nations has allowed Canada to act as an international peacemaker, and to oversee the signing of several historic treaties, most notably during the First Cold War.

Canada has a multi-party, bicameral parliamentary system, with the Liberals and Conservatives comprising the main political factions of the Canadian government. The New Democratic Party, Greens, and Bloc Quebecois also control seats in the House of Commons. The House of Commons is elected no less than every 4 years, with the last election being in 2019. Liberal leader Justin Trudeau is the current Prime Minister of Canada, following his party's narrow win in the 2019 election. The House of Lords is a politically independent body which approves laws made by the House of Parliament. Members of the House of Lords are appointed by the Prime Minister. Canada has a supreme court, which primarily oversees matters related to the Constitution and the Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

Canada's military is a small but specialized force, boasting less than 70,000 active recruits. Nonetheless, it has fought in conflicts around the world, and currently maintains several peace keeping forces in countries like Mali, Iraq, Afghanistan, Serbia, Azerbaijan, Syria, and Yemen. Canada's Air Force and Navy are similarly small but well trained, with Canadian marines acting on rescue and safety missions around the world. Canada maintains a small arsenal of tanks, anti-air weaponry, and airplanes, most of which is purchased from the United States, France, and Germany. Canada spends 1.6% of its GDP on defense per year.

Canada's budget runs on a small deficit, with most of its spending funded by a sales tax, corporate tax, and wealth tax. Each province also collects their own taxes and sets their own budget, while the budget of the territories is managed by the federal government. Canada spends over 50% of its federal budget on welfare, leading many to describe Canada as a welfare state. 20% of the budget is dedicated to funding education, healthcare, and community and business investment. Canada currently has a debt of 1.432 Trillion dollars, which is 82.6% of its GDP.

Indigenous Populations
Prior to the arrival of European colonizers, much of Canada's territory was occupied by a large number of Indigenous tribes. These included the Huron and Iroquois in Southwestern Ontario, the Micmac and Beothuk in the Atlantic Provinces, the Algonquin, Cree, Ojibwa, Chipewyan, and Blackfoot across the Canadian Interior, the Kootenay, Salish, and Haida in British Columbia, and the Aleut, Inuit, Nunavik, and Inuvialuit of the Northern Territories. These tribes formed complicated trade and alliance networks, often gathering around major rivers and bodies of water; many of the wealthiest tribes were located around the Great Lakes region. Prior to European colonization, it is estimated that as many as two million Indigenous peoples lived in what is now Canada.

Following European colonization, the population of many Indigenous tribes dropped rapidly; some, such as the Beothuk, were dissolved entirely as they were forced out of their land and could not sustain a community. European diseases wreaked havoc among the population, killing as many as 80 percent of the Indigenous peoples. Wars over resources, primarily fur, and over territory led to further declines in native population.

In 2015, Indigenous peoples comprised 4.9% of the Canadian population; The modern Indigenous population is overwhelmingly young, with 7.8% of those under the age of 14 being Indigenous. Indigenous groups are overwhelmingly poor, with 1 in 4 adults and 4 in 10 children living below the poverty line. Alcohol abuse is a major issue in many indigenous communities, with an estimated 65 percent of Indigenous men suffering from addiction.

European Colonization
It is commonly believed that the first Europeans to land in Canada were the Norse, with Leif Erikson landing on the northern coast of Newfoundland around the year 1000. The colony was short lived however, being dissolved after only a few years, with Erikson returning to Greenland. The next European attempts at colonialism would not come until 1497, when John Cabot, on orders of King Henry VII of England, sailed to Newfoundland. Cabot claimed the area for England. In 1534, Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, claiming the region for France and her king Francis I, exclaiming "Long Live the King of France!"

Over the next hundred years, Canada's coast and rivers became rich trading posts, with ores, fur, leather, and lumber being traded from tribes to settlers and sold back to Europe. Fishing towns also began to establish on the coasts of the Atlantic Provinces, where fish were plentiful and easily caught. However, many of these outposts were either abandoned or killed off, partially due to the harsh climate of the arctic north, and the inability to navigate the strong and often frozen currents.

In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert established the city of St. John's, Newfoundland, on orders from English Queen Elizabeth I. This would become a central port and control point for British control of North America, with several more colonies being established in rapid succession after the success of St. John's. The French founded the city of Quebec City in 1608, using the location as an anchor to manage trade across the Saint Lawrence. Quebec City would quickly develop into a major city, eventually becoming the capital of New France, which would later become the province of Quebec.

As the British and French claimed more tracts of land and formed alliances with Indigenous groups, conflict arose over colonial borders; in particular, both countries claimed a rich valley spanning much of the continent, which included most of Eastern Canada. This became the seven years war, which Britain won, leading to the annexation of the entirety of the French Canadian territory.

Under the British, Canada expanded rapidly, being formed into three main colonies: Upper Canada, later Ontario, Lower Canada, later Quebec, and Newfoundland. Several smaller colonies were also established. Quebec was granted religious and ethnic autonomy to avoid separatism, which was one of the complaints filed by the American Revolutionaries during the American Independence War. Canada's prosperity grew as it began attracting large waves of immigrants; in particular, Irish immigrants fleeing the Great Famine and displaced Scottish immigrants flocked to Canada. After a failed revolution in 1837, the British consolidated most of their Canadian colonies into one dominion, the Province of Canada; however, Newfoundland was left out of this consolidation, likely due to its cultural independence and value to the British.

Confederation
The British North America Act 1867 officially recognized Canada as a confederation of four provinces. These were Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. Much of the Canadian land outside these provinces was known as Rubert's Land; however, it would soon be re-organized into the Northwest Territories. In response to the Red River Rebellion of 1870, in which French Métis, under leader Louis Riel, occupied forts in the area and established a provisional government, Manitoba was created. It was initially a French province for Indigenous peoples; however, many English settlers quickly moved into the new province.

British Columbia, which was formed from British colonies on Vancouver Island, joined the confederation in 1871, prompting the building of a trans-continental railway; however, this would not be completed until 1881. Prince Edward Island would join soon after in 1873. Saskatchewan and Alberta were created out of territorial land in 1905, after a gold rush sponsored mass waves of immigration to the area. In 1912, many of the existing provinces were enlarged northward, creating the modern borders.

World War I
Despite confederation, Canada was still under control of the British, and as such partook in its wars. This was rarely an issue as patriotism was common among Canadian citizens; however, World War I posed a challenge for Canada, as many viewed the war as unjust and refused to die in Europe for such a petty matter that, in their eyes, Britain and Canada had no right intervening in. Draft dodging was common; despite this, many Canadians still enlisted, and war bonds were sold to fund the Canadian war effort. Canada committed over 625,000 troops; of these, over 60,000 died, and another 170,000 were permanently wounded. Canadian soldiers won several key battles of the war, most notably the Battle of Vimy Ridge, where Canadians stormed a fortified hill held by over 40,000 German soldiers. The battle was crucial to the war, crumbling Germany's defenses and allowing the Allied Forces to push Germany back, and force a surrender, ending the war. Canada took part in peace negotiations, and was one of the first nations to join the League of Nations after the war, joining independent of Britain.

Independence and World War II
In 1929, in line with the American stock market crash of Black Monday, the Canadian economy fell into recession, which was worsened by a lack of ability to independently control monetary policy. Partially as a result of the Great Depression, calls for independence from Britain grew. Britain, Canada, and several other Commonwealth nations signed the Statute of Westminster in 1931, affirming the political and economic independence of all Commonwealth nations. Despite this, Canada had not yet gained independence; tensions in Europe would overshadow the fight for independence, as a second World War was brewing.

Canada entered World War II independent of Britain. Over one million Canadians served in World War II, with many fighting in defense of British territories; most notably, Canadian pilots helped reinforce the Royal Air Force during the Battle of Britain. Canadian soldiers defended Hong Kong against Japanese invasion for several months, slowing the Japanese invasion of China. Canadian soldiers were also present during the invasions of Sicily and Normandy, with Canadian breakthroughs at Juno Beach being critical to the success of the D-Day operation. Canadian soldiers then moved north, liberating the Netherlands. The event is memorialized with a ceremony between the two countries every year.

Canada's economy grew through the war, largely untouched by the bombing and destruction of Europe and Asia. Canada became a major manufacturing hub, producing everything from weaponry and oil to food rations. Canada's navy also grew considerably, partially from acquisition of older British and American ships.

Contemporary History
Newfoundland joined Canada after a referendum in 1949, becoming the final province to join. Canada's economic growth and growing cultural diversity after the war led to a golden age of liberalism, with social democratic policies such as single-payer healthcare, a federal pension plan, and a federal student loan system being implemented. Canada adopted an official policy of multiculturalism, adopting both English and French as official languages, and adopting the Maple Leaf as a national symbol. In 1982, another referendum led to the creation of an independent Canadian constitution, part of which became the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Despite obtaining full independence, the monarch of Britain remained the sovereign ruler of Canada, as was the case with several other Commonwealth nations.

Quebecois Nationalism underwent a revitalization in the 1960s and 1970s, primarily backed by secular, politically left parties. This led to the October Crisis, and later to an independence referendum. Several attempts were made to address Quebecois separatism, most notably the Meech Lake Accords, which were never ratified, and further increased ethnic tensions. A second referendum was held in 1995, narrowly failing. The Canadian Supreme Court ruled in 1997 that secession was unconstitutional, and as a result the Canadian Parliament passed the Clarity Act, outlining the rules around secession and autonomy for provinces.

Heading into the 1990s and 2000s, Canada experienced a number of national crises which shook the nation; these included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 as a result of a terrorist attack, the Oka Crisis, a rise in mass shootings and urban violence and crime, and growing international conflict. Canada intervened in Yugoslavia and Iraq as part of NATO, and later joined America in fighting in Afghanistan, Libya, and Syria; however, Canada refused to join America's invasion of Iraq to replace Saddam Hussein as leader of Iraq. Canada has also been active in fighting against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) and its affiliated groups.